Stone Pine

Pinus pinea

1. Identification and origin

The stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) is an evergreen conifer of the Pinaceae family, native to the Mediterranean region. It is widely cultivated in Portugal, Spain, Italy and other Mediterranean countries, valued both for its ecological role and for the production of pine nuts. In Portugal, it occurs mainly in the central and southern coastal areas, in pure or mixed stands.

2. Economic importance

The stone pine has high economic importance owing to the production of pine nuts, a product of high commercial value. The wood is used in carpentry and light construction. The species is also relevant in soil protection, dune stabilisation and the afforestation of degraded areas. Its characteristic habit further confers ornamental and landscape value.

3. Botanical description

An evergreen tree of medium to large size, reaching 15–25 m in height, with a broad, rounded, umbrella-shaped crown. The leaves are needle-like, grouped in fascicles of two long, flexible needles. The cones are large and globose, containing pine nuts with a woody seed coat. The root system is deep, conferring good resistance to drought.

4. Soil and climate requirements

The stone pine adapts well to Mediterranean climates, with hot, dry summers and mild winters. It prefers sandy to sandy-loam, well-drained soils, with a slightly acidic to neutral pH. It tolerates drought and atmospheric salinity well, making it suitable for coastal areas. It is sensitive to waterlogging and compacted soils.

5. Main pests

• Pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa): defoliation and health risk
• Wood borers (Ips sexdentatus, Tomicus piniperda, Orthotomicus erosus): galleries in the trunk and rapid decline
• Conifer aphids (Cinara spp.): sap sucking and honeydew
• Scale insects (Diaspididae): loss of vigour and yellowing
• Insect vector of pine wilt – longhorn beetle (Monochamus galloprovincialis): transmission of the nematode and rapid decline of trees

6. Main diseases

• Pine wilt (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus): sudden wilting and rapid death, transmitted by Monochamus galloprovincialis
• Pitch canker (Fusarium circinatum): necroses and resin exudation
• Root rots (Armillaria spp., Heterobasidion annosum): progressive decline
• Rusts (Coleosporium spp.): leaf spots and needle drop
• Cankers and necroses (Diplodia sapinea): branch death and decline

7. General crop management

The management of the stone pine includes the selection of adapted plant material, the prevention of water stress and the maintenance of stands with adequate density. Monitoring of wood borers and of the insect vector Monochamus galloprovincialis is essential, especially after storms, cuttings or periods of drought. The removal of weakened trees and sanitary management are fundamental to prevent the spread of pests and diseases. Cone harvesting should be carried out at the appropriate period to maximise the quality of the pine nuts.

Bibliographic references

• EPPO Global Database – Pinus pinea
• CABI – Crop Protection Compendium – Pinus pinea L.
• Wingfield, M. J., et al. (2015). Diseases of conifers. Forest Pathology.
• FAO (2020). Conifer Forest Management Manual.
• Sousa, E., et al. (2015). Pine wilt disease in Europe. In: Forest Pathology. Springer.
• Mutke, S., et al. (2012). Mediterranean stone pine: botany and management. Acta Horticulturae.